feldgendarmerie units

With the outbreak of WW1, 33 Feldgendarmerie units were formed with drafts of men from the civil Gendarmerie and other suitable soldiers, again many of whom were experienced Cavalry NCOs. They often worked in close cooperation with the Geheime Feldpolizei (English: Secret Field Police), district commanders and SS and Police Leaders. German Uniforms, Insignia and Equipment, 1918-1923 - Charles Woolley 2002 . Top. Not only was it associated with standard military police duties, but some Feldgendarmerie units were assigned occupation duties in the territories controlled by the Wehrmacht. Designated the SA Field Police (SA-Feldjgerkorps), this formation was organized into eight battalions of approximately 195 men each with each battalion being assigned to a specific city or district with its headquarters in Berlin. German Soldiers in WW2 were the main fighting force of the Heer. termed lazy rogues Every Abteilung had command over a "Fliegendes Standgericht" (flying drumhead trial/flying court martial), which composed of three judges. Typical armament for Feldgendarmen consisted of light weapons such as 9mm automatic pistols, Mauser Kar98k carbines and 9mm machine pistols such as the MP28 or MP40. the Feldgendarmerie of the Luftwaffe was considered as part did they issue ppk's as a sidearm in the feldgendarmerie as my dad was wondering would he be able to use a ppk as a sidearm as he is thinking of joining second battle group's feldgendarmerie unit lol thanks. Former civilian policemen drafted into the Feldgendarmerie acquired military ranks in keeping with their former police status. He became a police officer in 1937. The Feldjgerkorps consisted of 3 Feldjgerkommando: Feldjgerkommando I and II saw action on the Eastern front, whilst Feldjgerkommando III saw action on the western front. Feldgendarmerie Police Insignia. 4008 - Frankreichtour 2016 - Normandie - Colleville sur Mer - Overlord Museum.jpg 4,761 3,153; 3.51 MB Afrika Korps mockup, Penry Museum 1.JPG 2,272 1,704; 689 KB Hosted by Christoph Awender. From one batch of 219 trainees, only 89 made it as far as the final examination. Their duties policing the areas behind the front lines ranged from straightforward traffic control and population control to suppression and execution of partisans and the apprehension of enemy stragglers. Their duties policing the areas behind the front lines ranged from straightforward traffic control and population control to suppression and execution of partisans and the apprehension of enemy stragglers. "FHH"- Schning, Wilhelm 07.02.1944 Major d.R. This was exemplified in its security forces. They each had 60 men and two NCOs. These SS units had a severe reputation for being strict enforcers of military law. end of WW1, around one third of military policemen had been drawn from the Gendarmerie, of Feldgendarmerie escorting prisoners. In some cases, a single GFP officer could be attached to a Feldgendarmerie unit to assist in antipartisan operations. GitHub export from English Wikipedia. However, state officials protested as the law enforcement function in the brand new German constitution had been given primarily to the states, not the federation. Waffen-SS Feldgendarmerie Units. The Feldjgers function was to preserve order and discipline, prevent panicked retreats, collect stragglers, and round up escaped prisoners of war. The Geheime Feldpolizei (GFP), or Secret Field Police, operated as the executive organ of the Abwehr, the German military intelligence service. Feldgendarmerie were employed within army divisions and as self-contained units under the command of an army corps. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. The Fj battalion consisted of five motorized companies, each of 30 officers and 90 non-commissioned officers. One third of Feldgendarmerie members were Obergendarmen from the regular police force, one third were Unteroffiziere and the last third Gefreiter (the latter two from cavalry units). can be seen from this enlarged extract of the above image, the special Thus, military police in the modern Bundeswehr were not called Feldgendarmerie. Heinrich Himmlers mistress Hedwig Potthast. Some units of the Ordnungspolizei were integrated into the army's Feldgendarmerie units. His immediate subordinates were the staff officers of each Oberkommando Army who was in charge of the Feldgendarmerie Battalion, one or more of which would be attached to each Army. Answer (1 of 2): The metal plate in question is called a 'gorget'. army uniform with the Feldgendarmerie cuffband and sleeve eagle. Elisabeth Becker a Stutthof concentration, Son buries father 70 years after his death, German Feldgendarmerie Kettenhunde Chain Dogs. His immediate subordinate was a staff officer attached to each Oberkommando Army who commanded the one or more Feldgendarmerie battalions attached to each Wehrmacht formation. The Feldgendarmerie was the regular military police arm of the Wehrmacht. When -Japanese . The uniform of the Feldgendarmerie was identical with the uniform of the Landgendarmerie. These special SS-Feldgendarmerie were denoted by a diamond polizei-eagle insignia worn on the lower sleeve. It was no easy feat passing the requirements and becoming a police officer. They also had seniority over every other soldier, up to their own rank, whatever their branch of service. identity, over a Roman numeral indicating the number of the Army Corps. The Feldjgerkorps operated parallel to the front line and approximately 1215 miles behind it. On the cuff of the left sleeve of the uniform all ranks wore a 30mm-wide brown cuff with gray cotton edging and inscribed with the word Feldgendarmerie in silver-gray machine- woven gothic lettering. Their duties were similar to the Bahnhofswache, but they also guarded trains passing through enemy territory and dealt with partisan acts of sabotage. The SS was responsible for the vast majority of war crimes perpetrated under the Nazi regime. Its units carried out plainclothes for undercover operation security work in the field such as clandestine operation, counterpropaganda, counterinsurgency . They had the military authority of the OKW to arrest and execute officers and soldiers from either the Wehrmacht or the SS for desertion, defeatism and other duty violations. This had a concealed fly button front with two lower slash pockets ( a style Infanterie-Division (mot) and Grenadier-Regiment 271 "Feldherrnhalle" of 93. from highly polished steel, with at each side a gilt brass Prussian eagle, facing Indeed, the Gestapo was overwhelmed with denunciations and spent most of its time sorting out the credible from the less credible of these. A Gruppe, a section sized unit, were then assigned to specific field or local commands. of Germany's military police dates back for many hundreds of years, certainly The new units received full infantry training and were given extensive police powers. Shoulder straps were also FHH Holders of the German Cross in Gold (16)Holders of the Honor Roll Clasp of the Heer (3)- Maciejewski, Leo, 05.06.1944, Hauptmann, I./Gren.Rgt. Please find below our range of WW2 German Police Insignia including Sleeve Eagles and Police gorgets. The Treaty of Versailles, which ended World War I, imposed limits on the manpower of the German Army, and military police units were disbanded. Far from being an all-powerful agency that knew everything about what was happening in German society, the local offices were understaffed and included overworked personnel who struggled with the paper load caused by so many denunciations. Insignia of Feldgendarmerie (1 C) Media in category "Uniforms of Feldgendarmerie" The following 29 files are in this category, out of 29 total. TheFeldgendarmeriealso administered the Strafbattalion, Penal Battalion, which were Wehrmacht punishment units created for soldiers convicted by court martialand sentenced to a deferred execution. But by 1943 as the tide of war changed for Nazi Germany, the Feldgendarmerie were given the task of maintaining discipline in the Wehrmacht. FHH (for action 25.06-29.07.1944 zwischen Mogilew und Seirijai)- Koch, Erwin, 00.00.1945 (6251), Hauptmann, Pz.Gren.Ers.u.Ausb.Rgt. The Prussian Gendarmerie staff (Kniglich Preuische Landgendarmerie; Royal Prussian State Gendarmerie) were well-proven infantry and cavalry NCOs after serving their standard service time at the army and some COs. Officially they were still military personnel, equipped and paid by the Ministry of War, but in peacetime attached to the Ministry of the Interior, serving as normal or as mounted police. In January 1944 as the Red Army began to advance on the Eastern Front, the power of the Feldgendarmerie was superseded by the creation of the Feldjgerkorps. During the final days of the war, as the Third Reich crumbled, recruits or soldiers who committed even the slightest infraction were sent to a Strafbataillon. This was especially true as the war dragged on and the few fit and able men serving in such units were drawn off to combat formations. at Gardekorps level showed only the number of the individual wearer. SS-Feldgendarmerie Cuff Title as worn by Military Police Units. The Feldjgerkorps: Elite Military Police. The organisation of the Feldgendarmerie began at the German High Command O.K.H (Oberkommando Des Heeres). This meant an end to my good life I gotpromoted to Lieutenant in Sept 1943 and joined my new unit in Poltava. Deutsche Feldgendarmerie in Neu-Sandec Frhjahr 1915. As part of its race-centric functions, the SS oversaw the isolation and displacement of Jews from the German population and in the conquered territories, seizing their assets and imprisoning them in concentration camps and ghettos where they would be used as slave labor pending extermination. Feldgendarmerie NCO with two junior ranks stand beside their Opel staff Early history. blue Waffenfarbe associated with these troops. be seen on wartime photos. Personal weapons consisted of small arms such as the Walther PP which was designed as a civilian police pistol (PP Polizei-Pistole) or the Walther PPK both of which were favoured by officers whereas the Luger P08 and Walther P38 were used by other ranks. In 1939 . Military policemen were armed with Walther pistols that had been designed for use by civilian police, either the model PP (Police Pistole) or PPK; they were favored by officers over the Luger PO8 and Walther P38 used by other ranks. Hitlers Germany was known for its organization and efficiency, as well as its deprivations, terror, and cruelty. the_moon_wolfy Jan 28 @ 9:28pm Nevermind this doesn't seem to work. Show per page. tasks as punishing disobedient soldiers and dealing with freebooters, 3.Kompanie -2.SS Living History group 3.Kompanie of the 1.Bataillon of Der Fhrer Regiment of the 2.Waffen-SS Panzerdivision "Das Reich" reenacted. The swastika was in black and the rest of the insignia in orange-red for other ranks and in silver thread for officers. This earned them the pejorativeKettenhunde, after the gorget they wore with their uniforms. The cuff title was used until 15 November 1944 after which members of the SS-Feldgendarmerie reverted to wearing the cuff-title of their division. "field gendarmerie") were a type of military police units of the armies of the Kingdom of Saxony (from 1810), the German Empire and Nazi Germany until the conclusion of World War II in Europe. The Feldgendarmerie were the uniformed military police units of the armies of the Kingdom of Saxony (from 1810), the German Empire and the Third Reich until the conclusion of World War II. (mot.) The title To fulfill this task it created a system of agents and informants throughout the Reich and later in the occupied territories. Very interesting question were there any differences between 'ordinary' Feldgendarmerie and SS Feldgendarmerie. These battalions were equipped with motorcycles and sidecars, Kbelwagen, field cars such as the Horch 4x4 and 3 ton Opel Blitz lorries and a small number of armoured vehicles as a means of transport. The German Feldgendarmerie force had its origins in the 19th century, with most German states forming military units for policing duties. Initially, the Feldgendarmerie of the Luftwaffe was considered as part of the Divisional Supply and Support elements and wore the light blue Waffenfarbe associated with these troops. car. German Station Guards or Feldgendarmerie, military police units, at the 'Railway in Wartime' North Yorks Moors Railway (NYMR) event at Levisham Railway Station in inclement weather on weekend 12th-13th October 2013. At the outbreak of the war the German high command organised a secret police force (the Geheime Feld Polizei or GFP) to serve with the Armed Forces. were yellow. After the surrender of Germany, Feldjgerkommando remained armed and at the disposal of the US Army in order to maintain discipline amongst the German PoWs. it would be various Cavalry type units which would carry out military poilice Rear-echelon personnel would also be checked for passes that permitted them to be away from the front. They were employed with Army divisions and higher formations. 6731 Whittier Avenue, Suite C-100 McLean, VA 22101, Stay up to date with all of our latest news, In addition to those troops who were dedicated to security and policing matters such as the Feldgendarmerie and the Feldjger, the German Army fielded 15 security divisions (Sicherungs-Divisionen) during the war. Each Feldjgerkommandeur originally controlled a Feldjgerabteilung (battalion), and from 24 April 1944, a regiment). The history It was administered by the RSHA, the head office of the Reichs security service, and was considered a dual organization of the SD and also an office under the Sipo. Feldgendarmerie Feldgendarmerie f old, Mil military police Translation German - English Collins Dictionary "Feldgendarmerie": examples and translations in context See how "Feldgendarmerie " is translated from German to English with more examples in context Add your entry in the Collaborative Dictionary. The Feldgendarmerie had the authority to pass through roadblocks, checkpoints, and secured areas and were allowed to conduct body and property searches and obtain the assistance of any other military or civilian personnel. British forces in Schleswig-Holstein formed a regiment of Feldgendarmerie to maintain discipline and order at the Meldorf Demobilization Center. Other German police and security organizations included units such as the Army Patrol Service or Heeresstreifendienst, a branch of the military police tasked with maintaining order and discipline, and occasionally taking on traffic duties, as well as checking troop identification papers with the authority to report offenders to their commanding officers for punishment. The SD-Sipo was also the primary agency, in conjunction with the Orpo, assigned to maintain order and security in the Jewish ghettos in Eastern Europe. events, and resources. or "Chain Dogs". But Feldgendarmerie units are known to have assisted the SS in committing war crimes in occupied areas. 11.95. worn, the cuffband used by Luftwaffe Feldgendarmen was the Panzergrenadier-Division from elements of the destroyed 60. Feldgendarmerie were employed within army divisions and as self-contained units under the command of an army corps. The Feldgendarmerie was the regular military police arm of the Wehrmacht. The term Soldat was generic; most soldiers had a rank title based on the type of unit they were assigned to, or the trade in which they were employed. Feldgendarmerie: Obergefreiter der Feldgendarmerie: Pioneer / Engineer: Pionier: Oberpionier : Infantry (1939-1942) Schtze: Oberschtze : Infantry (1942-45) Grenadier: Their duties included checking the identification and leave passes of soldiers, checking for deserters, screening civilian passengers, and helping to run the center. The organization consisted of a few hundred full-time agents and several thousand informants. Life in the Third Reich & Weimar Republic, Kriegsmarine surface ships and Kriegsmarine in general, Luftwaffe air units and Luftwaffe in general, German Strategy & General German Military Discussion, NSDAP, other party organizations & Government, The Dieter Zinke Axis Biographical Research Section, The Ron Klages Panzer & other vehicles Section, Panzer & other vehicles - Photo threads, Axis Documents, Feldpost numbers, Postcards & Other Paper Items, The United Kingdom & its Empire and Commonwealth 1919-45, The Allies and the Neutral States in general, German Colonies and Overseas Expeditions, The end of the Ottoman Empire 1908-1923, Translation help: Breaking the Sound Barrier, http://home.mweb.co.za/re/redcap/germany.htm. pistols such as the MP28 or MP40. In the centre embroidered wire lettering on a darker brown band. Also, Felgendarmerie units took active part in Jew hunting operations, including in Western Europe. When combat units moved forward out of a region, theFeldgendarmerierole would formally end as control was then transferred to occupation authorities under the control of the Nazi Partyand SS. Yes, like many pieces of Wehrmacht kit, the gorget was also used by Feldgendarmerie units of the Waffen-SS who only perfromed a limited function and represented only a miniscule proportion of the total numbers of Feldgendarmerie, the overwhelming number of whom were in the Army. In the center of the plate was a large spread eagle and swastika over a scroll bearing the legend Feldgendarmerie. The gorget was suspended by a neck chain. They were given the power to arrest anyone who could not provide a satisfactory explanation for their absence from active duty. In stock. Infanterie-Division (mot) and Grenadier-Regiment 271 "Feldherrnhalle" of 93. Quick view . The guerrilla style warfare was adopted as the best and easiest way to combat the occupiers (through the means of sabotaging, raids and hit and run tactics) Feldgendarmerie Gorget of WW1 came in two styles. Contribute to chinapedia/wikipedia.en development by creating an account on GitHub. Many ordinary soldiers deemed to be deserters were summarily executed by Feldgendarmerie units. machine woven army pattern. This gorget features a central eagle above the Feldgendarmerie title that are luminous at night. The purpose of the SS and police leader was to be a direct command authority for every SS and police unit in a given geographical region, answering only to Himmler and Adolf Hitler. He held ultimate jurisdiction over the Feldgendarmerie units in the Wehrmacht, and was responsible for postings and personal administration, monitoring the performance of the police, allocation of tasks, laying down traffic regulations as well as devising training procedures. Flickr photos, groups, and tags related to the "feldgendarmerie" Flickr tag. See also [ edit] Military of Germany portal Feldgendarmerie Feldjgerkorps References [ edit] Rear-echelon personnel would also be checked for passes that permitted them to be away from the front. This page was last edited on 10 December 2022, at 21:07. As Mounted Feldgendarmerie (their uniforms show that it's a predominantly Bosnian unit) The enlisted men are armed with K98s while the NCOs have only pistols. Background Feldgendamerie was the German Army military police in the 3rd Reich. In August Post by Piet Duits Tue Dec 27, 2005 12:02 pm Hi, Personally I don't think this Kompanie was a military police unit, but instead a socalled Feldgenesenden-Marsch-Kompanie The purpose of these units was to get better of "small wounds" in the rear area of an army or corps, and then to return to the front quickly. Their duties policing the areas behind the front lines ranged from straightforward traffic control and population control to suppression and execution of partisans and the apprehension of enemy stragglers. FHH- Wolff, Helmut, 07.01.1945 (5121), Oberstleutnant, Kdr. Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, military police units were also used but after A Feldgendarmerietrupp, attached to an infantry or panzer division, would usually comprise three officers, 41 noncommissioned officers, and 20 men. NOte the standard Army "WH" (Wehrmacht - Heer) number for a short transitional period, the original Police uniforms Luftwaffe version on field-blue. But by 1943 as the tide of war changed for Nazi Germany, the Feldgendarmerie were given the task to maintain discipline in the Wehrmacht. of WW1, a total of 115 Feldgendarmerie units had been formed. He was responsible for postings and personnel administration, monitoring the performance of the police units, allocation of tasks, traffic regulations and training. The unit consisted of former polizei members and volunteers recruited from existing Sturmabteilung (SA) and Schutzstaffel (SS) units. With the creation of the Bundeswehr in 1955, many of its branches of service were given names that would at least nominally distinguish them from their logical Wehrmacht equivalents. He is armed with a Mauser Kar98k carbine. The gorget was worn at all times while on duty except when combat operations made this impossible. Nicknamed Kopf Jger (Head Hunters), they also tracked down and punished those deemed to be deserters. For instance, in August 1942 Feldgendarmerie units rounded up Jews in the Occupied Zone of France as part of a mass deportation operation. The Geheime Feldpolizei (German: [ham fltpolitsa] (); transl. For example, for Lower Franconia, with a population of about one million in the 1930s, there was only one Gestapo office with a staff of just 28, half of whom were clerical workers. IImperial In some cases in larger The Gestapo, a contraction of Geheime Staatspolizei (Secret State Police), was the official secret police of Nazi Germany. Initially, I dont think that they are DLV as the color is a bit brighter. The Orpo consisted of the Schutzpolizei (municipal police), the Gendarmerie (rural police), and the Gemeindepolizei (local police). An Unteroffizier By the end of WW1, a total of 115 Feldgendarmerie units had been formed. This was continued by the Imperial German Army during World War I when a large force was formed for all policing tasks behind the front lines, although this was disbanded during the interwar period. 9.95. The German Feldgendarmerie force had its origins in the 19th century, with most German states forming military units for policing duties. Standard Other heavier armament such as the MG34 or MG42 would be available if required but not normally carried on patrol duties. Military Police units were incorporated into military structures of some Czechoslovak units fighting abroad, such as Czechoslovak legions in Russia or in Italy. The Feldjgerregiment contained five Feldjgerabteilungen each of which contained three Kompanies, of about 50 men. Feldgendarmerie units were generally given occupation duties in territories directly under the control of the Wehrmacht. FHHHolders of the Knight's Cross (4)- Berger, Herbert 12.03.1944 Oberfeldwebel Zugfhrer i. d. 10./Gren.Rgt (mot) FHH- Oberwhrmann, Erich 07.02.1944 Hauptmann Fhrer Pz.Abt Feldherrnhalle- Ostermeier, Hans-Arno 23.08.1944 Hauptmann d.R. The numbers The Panzergrenadier-Division Feldherrnhalle was formed in southern France as 60. When MPs were Author Antony Beevor explores some well-documented cases of their participation in his book Stalingrad. cost 20 Armaments 1x MP 40 (9mm) RoF: 117.5 r/m Bullet Damage: 0.4 Suppression: 6 Blast: 26 Accuracy: 50 % Range: 100 m Different basic unit within the Feldgendarmerie was the Trupp (broadly Kdr I./Fs.Rgt Feldherrnhalle, Staff- Staff- Mapping Detachment (mot)- Feldgendarmerie Troop (mot)Feldherrnhalle Fusilier Regiment- Staff- Regimental Band- Staff Company-- Signals Platoon-- Pioneer Platoon- 3 x Battalion-- Staff-- 4 x Fusilier Company- Heavy Infantry Gun Company (self-propelled)- Panzerjger Company (mot)Feldherrnhalle Grenadier Regiment- Staff- Regimental Band- Staff Company-- Signals Platoon-- Pioneer Platoon- 3 x Battalion-- Staff-- 4 x Fusilier Company- Heavy Infantry Gun Company (self-propelled)- Panzerjger Company (mot)Feldherrnhalle Panzer Reconnaissance Battalion- Staff- Heavy Platoon- Light Armored Car Company- Reconnaissance Company (half-track)- 2 x Heavy Reconnaissance Company (half-track)- Heavy Company (half-track)-- Pioneer Platoon-- Panzerjger Platoon-- Light Infantry Gun Section-- 2 x Platoon- Light Supply ColumnFeldherrnhalle Panzer Battalion- Staff- Staff Battery- 3 x Sturmgeschtz Battery- Panzer Maintenance PlatoonFeldherrnhalle Artillery Regiment- Staff- Staff Battery (mot)- Battalion-- Staff-- Staff Battery (self-propelled)-- 3 x Battery (self-propelled)- 2 x Battalion-- Staff-- Staff Battery (mot)-- 3 x Battery (mot)Feldherrnhalle Flak Battalion- Staff- Staff Battery (mot)- 2 x Heavy Flak Battery (mot)- Light Flak Battery- Supply ColumnFeldherrnhalle Pioneer Battalion- Staff- 3 x Pioneer Company (mot)- Brko K Bridging Column (mot)- Light Pioneer Column (mot)Feldherrnhalle Signals Battalion- Staff- Telephone Company (mot)- Radio Company (mot)- Signals Column (mot)Supply & Support Troops, The "Feldherrnhalle" cuff title was authorized for this unit to illustrate the connections with the SA-Standarte Feldherrnhalle.Photo N & T Global Trading The Feldherrnhalle Kampfrune was authorized for use on the shoulder boards June 1943.Photo Relics of the Reich, Alfonso Escuadra Sanchez - Feldherrnhalle: Forgotten EliteAdolf Schlicht & John R Angolia - Die Deutsche Wehrmacht: Uniformierung und Ausrstung 1933-1945, Band 1 Das HeerGeorg Tessin - Verbnde und Truppen der deutschen Wehrmacht 1933-1945, Kurt Bellin - Beitrge zur Geschichte der 60. Post They were often called into action against partisan forces in Eastern Europe and Russia, but in the main they were inadequate to the tasks allotted them. The Feldgendarmerie were the Military Police in war zones, in WW2 they were nicknamed "Kettenhunde" or "Chained dogs". If an officer of the Feldgendarmerie failed to abide by his code of honor, he would be relieved of his command, turned over to the Feldgendarmerie replacement battalion and returned to his home duty station in disgrace. Just as experienced civil policemen were drafted into the Feldgendarmerie, so the GFP was staffed by transferring experienced detectives from the Kriminalpolizei (Kripo) or criminal police. plate. There were no Feldgendarmerie-Abteilungen within the Order of Battle of the Luftwaffe. Prussian Gardekorps Feldgendarmerie Gorget. Luftwaffe version of the Gorget is clearly being worn. Strong measures were called for. Also, Felgendarmerie units took active part in Jew hunting operations, including in Western Europe." - Wikipedia In the Heer, Feldgendarmerie units were part of the military police. A battalion was subdivided into smaller-sized Truppen[citation needed] which were attached to each division or corps. The SD became more powerful after the Nazis came to power, and the SS began to infiltrate leading positions in the security apparatus of the government. Felgendarmerie units took active part in Jew hunting operations, including in Western Europe. The Germans have STRAFBAT shirkers which are cheaper than normal inex shirkers and can be paired with Feldgendarmerie units which get an aura which removes shirker (for . Field-Police or Police in the Field) was formed. Learn how and when to remove this template message, "Polizeiliche Ermittlungsorgane der Wehrmachtjustiz", "German Military Police: The Third Reich - 1939 to 1945", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Feldgendarmerie&oldid=1141599967, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles needing additional references from January 2015, All articles needing additional references, Articles containing explicitly cited English-language text, Articles with unsourced statements from December 2021, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 25 February 2023, at 21:45.

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